Provider Backends

This is the contract reference for Crabbox provider backends: the interfaces a provider implements, how it registers, what core owns versus what the backend owns, and the checklist to land a new one. For the step-by-step walkthrough, read Authoring a provider first, then use this page as the reference and review checklist.

Read this when you are:

• adding a new Crabbox provider;
• choosing between an SSH lease backend and a delegated run backend;
• adding provider-specific flags or config;
• reviewing a provider PR for the right ownership boundary;
• designing a future external provider plugin protocol.

Every provider follows one rule:

Providers configure backends. Core commands own workflows.

That keeps crabbox run, warmup, list, status, stop, cleanup, Actions hydration, sync, result collection, rendering, and timing consistent across providers. A provider describes what it can do and returns a backend object. It does not fork the command surface.

#Choose the backend shape

Start by picking the execution model. A provider's Configure returns a Backend, and core inspects which interfaces that value implements.

#SSH lease backend

Use SSHLeaseBackend when the provider can hand Crabbox a reachable SSH target.

Examples: Hetzner Cloud, AWS EC2, GCP Compute Engine, Azure VMs, Proxmox, a local Docker container, and static BYO SSH hosts.

Core owns the entire workflow after acquisition:

• claim and slug handling;
• SSH readiness checks;
• network target resolution;
• sync and sync guardrails;
• command wrapping and streaming;
• JUnit/result collection;
• Actions runner hydration over SSH;
• heartbeat/touch;
• release.

The backend owns only the provider lifecycle:

type SSHLeaseBackend interface {
	Backend

	Acquire(ctx context.Context, req AcquireRequest) (LeaseTarget, error)
	Resolve(ctx context.Context, req ResolveRequest) (LeaseTarget, error)
	List(ctx context.Context, req ListRequest) ([]LeaseView, error)
	ReleaseLease(ctx context.Context, req ReleaseLeaseRequest) error
	Touch(ctx context.Context, req TouchRequest) (Server, error)
}

Implement this when LeaseTarget.SSH can be populated with host, port, user, key, work root, target OS, and Windows mode.

When the provider's spec sets Coordinator: CoordinatorSupported and a broker URL is configured (CRABBOX_COORDINATOR), core wraps your SSHLeaseBackend in a coordinator lease backend automatically (loadBackend in internal/cli/provider_backend.go). Lease lifecycle then flows through the broker over HTTP, while sync and command execution still happen directly from the CLI to the SSH host. You do not implement that wrapper; you only provide the direct backend.

#Delegated run backend

Use DelegatedRunBackend when the provider owns execution itself instead of exposing a Crabbox-managed SSH target.

Examples: Blacksmith Testbox, Blaxel, E2B, Islo, Modal, Tensorlake, Upstash Box, Superserve, Vercel Sandbox, and Azure Container Apps dynamic sessions, where the provider owns workspace setup and command streaming.

The delegated backend owns warmup, command execution, output streaming, and stop. Core still owns provider selection, config loading, local claims, friendly slugs, timing summaries, and normalized list/status rendering.

type DelegatedRunBackend interface {
	Backend

	Warmup(ctx context.Context, req WarmupRequest) error
	Run(ctx context.Context, req RunRequest) (RunResult, error)
	List(ctx context.Context, req ListRequest) ([]LeaseView, error)
	Status(ctx context.Context, req StatusRequest) (StatusView, error)
	Stop(ctx context.Context, req StopRequest) error
}

Delegated backends return normalized StatusView values. Rendering stays core-owned, so provider packages should not print their own status or list tables unless a compatibility interface explicitly asks for native output.

A delegated backend must reject run/sync options that Crabbox cannot honor without a Crabbox-managed SSH target:

if err := cli.RejectDelegatedSyncOptionsForSpec(spec, req); err != nil {
	return RunResult{}, err
}

Providers that declare FeatureArchiveSync (an archive upload of the checkout) can declare that feature in spec so --sync-only and --force-sync-large are allowed while the rest stay rejected. The helper rejects checksum sync, full resync, local stdout/stderr captures, capture-on-fail, downloads, artifact globs, uploaded scripts, env helpers, --stop-after, fresh PR checkouts, and --emit-proof (unless the provider declares FeatureRunProof) unless another explicit feature covers the request. Providers that execute source modules instead of shell commands may declare FeatureModuleRun; then --script and --script-stdin are accepted as module source input, while trailing shell command argv remains rejected. Delegated artifact globs require FeatureRunArtifacts and DelegatedRunArtifactBackend. Delegated single-file downloads require FeatureRunDownloads and DelegatedRunDownloadBackend; required artifacts may use either capability, but download-only providers accept safe relative file paths instead of globs. Do not pretend a delegated provider is SSH-like unless it has a stable SSH contract. If Crabbox cannot run rsync and remote commands itself, use DelegatedRunBackend.

#Optional interfaces

Add optional capabilities as small interfaces instead of widening every backend.

Cleanup is optional:

type CleanupBackend interface {
	Backend

	Cleanup(ctx context.Context, req CleanupRequest) error
}

Pause and resume are optional:

type PausableBackend interface {
	Backend

	Pause(ctx context.Context, req PauseRequest) error
	Resume(ctx context.Context, req ResumeRequest) error
}

Declare FeaturePauseResume when implementing this interface so crabbox providers exposes the capability.

List JSON compatibility is optional:

type JSONListBackend interface {
	Backend

	ListJSON(ctx context.Context, req ListRequest) (any, error)
}

JSONListBackend is a compatibility escape hatch for script-facing JSON shapes. Use it only when an existing provider already exposed a JSON schema different from the normalized []LeaseView shape. Do not use it for new providers.

Provider doctor checks are optional for direct providers that can prove cheap, non-mutating readiness:

type DoctorBackend interface {
	Backend

	Doctor(ctx context.Context, req DoctorRequest) (DoctorResult, error)
}

Use DoctorBackend when a provider owns direct credentials or a delegated runner outside the coordinator. The check must validate provider-specific readiness without creating resources, and it must not treat unrelated coordinator health as proof that the provider itself is configured correctly. Expose it through the matching provider-level hook so doctor does not configure every provider just to discover the optional capability:

type DoctorProvider interface {
	Provider

	ConfigureDoctor(cfg Config, rt Runtime) (DoctorBackend, error)
}

Native checkpoint and fork support follow the same pattern through NativeCheckpointProvider and NativeCheckpointForkProvider. Future provider-specific capability areas, such as pricing or image management, should add similarly narrow interfaces rather than widening the base backend.

#Package layout

Built-in providers live under internal/providers/<name>. The registry is populated by side-effect init() registration, gathered in internal/providers/all:

internal/providers/all                  # side-effect imports of every provider
internal/providers/shared               # shared direct SSH retry/touch/cleanup helpers
internal/providers/aws                  # AWS EC2 SSH lease backend (coordinator)
internal/providers/azure                # Azure VM SSH lease backend (coordinator)
internal/providers/azuredynamicsessions # Azure Container Apps delegated runner
internal/providers/gcp                  # GCP Compute Engine SSH lease backend (coordinator)
internal/providers/hetzner              # Hetzner Cloud SSH lease backend (coordinator)
internal/providers/linode               # Linode SSH lease backend
internal/providers/scaleway             # Scaleway SSH lease backend
internal/providers/proxmox              # Proxmox VE SSH lease backend
internal/providers/parallels            # Parallels macOS VM host SSH lease backend
internal/providers/localcontainer       # local Docker container SSH backend
internal/providers/multipass            # Canonical Multipass local Ubuntu VM SSH backend
internal/providers/ssh                  # static / BYO SSH backend
internal/providers/daytona              # Daytona SSH lease + delegated SDK backend
internal/providers/kubevirt             # generic KubeVirt SSH backend
internal/providers/external             # executable provider protocol
internal/providers/tenki                # Tenki sandbox SSH backend
internal/providers/namespace            # Namespace devbox SSH backend
internal/providers/namespaceinstance    # Namespace Compute instance SSH backend
internal/providers/semaphore            # Semaphore SSH lease backend
internal/providers/sprites              # Sprites SSH backend
internal/providers/exedev               # exe.dev SSH backend
internal/providers/runpod               # RunPod GPU pod SSH backend
internal/providers/nvidiabrev           # NVIDIA Brev GPU workspace SSH backend
internal/providers/railway              # Railway.app delegated backend
internal/providers/blacksmith           # Blacksmith Testbox delegated backend
internal/providers/e2b                  # E2B delegated backend
internal/providers/islo                 # Islo delegated backend
internal/providers/modal                # Modal delegated backend
internal/providers/opencomputer         # OpenComputer delegated backend
internal/providers/opensandbox          # OpenSandbox delegated backend
internal/providers/tensorlake           # Tensorlake delegated backend
internal/providers/upstashbox           # Upstash Box delegated backend
internal/providers/cloudflare           # Cloudflare Containers delegated backend
internal/providers/cloudflaresandbox    # Cloudflare Sandbox bridge delegated backend
internal/providers/wandb                # Weights & Biases delegated backend

Each provider package owns registration, provider name, aliases, spec, provider-specific flags, backend configuration, provider clients, provider lifecycle code, and provider-specific tests. cmd/crabbox imports internal/providers/all for side-effect registration:

import (
	"github.com/openclaw/crabbox/internal/cli"
	_ "github.com/openclaw/crabbox/internal/providers/all"
)

The core provider contract lives in internal/cli:

internal/cli/provider_backend.go      # interfaces, registry, request/result types
internal/cli/provider_coordinator.go  # brokered coordinator lease wrapper
internal/cli/provider_labels.go       # shared direct-provider label helpers

Provider packages may use small exported core helpers for claims, labels, sync preflight, timing JSON, and SSH key storage. Keep that helper surface narrow: if a provider needs broad command orchestration, the behavior probably belongs in core instead.

#Provider registration

A provider implements cli.Provider:

type Provider interface {
	Name() string
	Aliases() []string
	Spec() ProviderSpec

	RegisterFlags(fs *flag.FlagSet, defaults Config) any
	ApplyFlags(cfg *Config, fs *flag.FlagSet, values any) error

	Configure(cfg Config, rt Runtime) (Backend, error)
}

A minimal SSH provider package:

package example

import (
	"flag"

	"github.com/openclaw/crabbox/internal/cli"
)

func init() {
	cli.RegisterProvider(Provider{})
}

type Provider struct{}

func (Provider) Name() string      { return "example" }
func (Provider) Aliases() []string { return nil }

func (Provider) Spec() cli.ProviderSpec {
	return cli.ProviderSpec{
		Name: "example",
		Kind: cli.ProviderKindSSHLease,
		Targets: []cli.TargetSpec{
			{OS: "linux"},
		},
		Features: cli.FeatureSet{
			cli.FeatureSSH,
			cli.FeatureCrabboxSync,
		},
		Coordinator: cli.CoordinatorNever,
	}
}

func (Provider) RegisterFlags(*flag.FlagSet, cli.Config) any {
	return cli.NoProviderFlags()
}

func (Provider) ApplyFlags(*cli.Config, *flag.FlagSet, any) error {
	return nil
}

func (p Provider) Configure(cfg cli.Config, rt cli.Runtime) (cli.Backend, error) {
	return cli.NewExampleLeaseBackend(p.Spec(), cfg, rt), nil
}

NewExampleLeaseBackend stands in for the backend constructor you add for the provider. Existing providers use constructors such as NewAWSLeaseBackend and NewBlacksmithBackend.

Then add the side-effect import in internal/providers/all/all.go:

import _ "github.com/openclaw/crabbox/internal/providers/example"

Tests in internal/cli do not import internal/providers/all, because that would create an import cycle. Register test providers from a same-package test file when testing core dispatch.

#Provider spec

ProviderSpec is command-facing metadata:

type ProviderSpec struct {
	Name        string
	Family      string
	Kind        ProviderKind
	Targets     []TargetSpec
	Features    FeatureSet
	Coordinator CoordinatorMode
}

Use canonical provider names in docs and config. Aliases are for compatibility only. Family groups related providers so a flag set by one can route to a sibling (for example, the Azure family covers azure and azure-dynamic-sessions); leave it empty to default to the provider name.

Pick Kind carefully:

• ProviderKindSSHLease: provider returns SSH targets and Crabbox owns sync/run.
• ProviderKindDelegatedRun: provider owns execution and output streaming.

Targets should describe what the provider can actually satisfy. Use linux, macos, or windows only for real operating-system targets. Use worker-runtime for Worker-isolate or module-runtime providers that execute source in a hosted runtime without POSIX shell, SSH, filesystem sync, ports, or desktop semantics. Do not list windows, macos, desktop, browser, or code unless the backend supports that path end to end.

Feature flags are concrete capability declarations:

cli.FeatureSSH          // "ssh"
cli.FeatureCrabboxSync  // "crabbox-sync"
cli.FeatureArchiveSync  // "archive-sync"
cli.FeatureCleanup      // "cleanup"
cli.FeatureDesktop      // "desktop"
cli.FeatureBrowser      // "browser"
cli.FeatureCode         // "code"
cli.FeatureTailscale    // "tailscale"
cli.FeatureURLBridge    // "url-bridge"
cli.FeatureCheckpoint   // "workspace-checkpoint"
cli.FeatureFork         // "workspace-fork"
cli.FeatureRestore      // "workspace-restore"
cli.FeatureSnapshot     // "provider-snapshot"
cli.FeatureCacheVolume  // "cache-volume"
cli.FeatureRunProof     // "run-proof"
cli.FeatureRunSession   // "run-session"
cli.FeatureModuleRun    // "module-run"
cli.FeatureRunArtifacts // "run-artifacts"
cli.FeatureRunDownloads // "run-downloads"
cli.FeatureMCP          // "mcp-attachments"

Actions runner hydration is intentionally not a provider feature. It is a core SSH-over-Linux/Windows workflow that requires an SSH lease backend, a linux/windows target, and no delegated execution.

Set CoordinatorSupported only when the Crabbox broker can provision that provider. Today that is the managed cloud set (aws, azure, gcp, hetzner). A direct-only SSH provider should use CoordinatorNever. Even a CoordinatorSupported provider runs direct from the CLI until a broker URL/token is configured.

Checkpoint-related features are reserved for versioned workspaces:

• FeatureCheckpoint: provider can create a provider-aware checkpoint.
• FeatureFork: provider can create a new workspace from a checkpoint.
• FeatureRestore: provider can restore an existing workspace to a checkpoint.
• FeatureSnapshot: provider can expose a native snapshot id for Crabbox

metadata.

• FeatureCacheVolume: provider can mount keyed rebuildable cache volumes on

warmup/run.

• FeatureRunProof: delegated provider can return bounded stream/timing metadata

for core crabbox run --emit-proof rendering.

• FeatureRunSession: delegated proof/session runner that exposes a run session

handle.

• FeatureRunArtifacts: delegated provider can validate and collect bounded run

artifact globs after a successful command, including required artifacts.

• FeatureRunDownloads: delegated provider can materialize bounded single-file

downloads and validate safe relative single-file required artifacts after a successful command.

• FeatureModuleRun: delegated provider accepts --script or --script-stdin

as source module input and does not interpret trailing argv as a shell command.

• FeatureMCP: delegated provider can attach MCP server references during

sandbox creation.

• FeatureArchiveSync: provider syncs the checkout as an uploaded archive rather

than over rsync.

• FeatureURLBridge: delegated provider can expose a lease's port through the

broker URL bridge.

Do not set the checkpoint flags for plain SSH access alone. Generic Git/archive/log checkpoints are core-owned and work even when a provider advertises no native checkpoint features.

crabbox providers --json also exposes a normalized workspace array derived from these feature flags:

Use that normalized field for workflow selection and external comparisons. Keep provider-specific snapshot names, CRDs, image IDs, and fork engines behind the provider adapter.

The same provider matrix exposes normalized run-evidence capabilities:

providers recommend run-evidence requires at least one proof, artifact, download, or preview-url capability. A bare session handle is useful metadata, but it is not enough by itself to claim the provider returns user-facing evidence.

#Flags and config

Provider flags are registered before parsing because Go's flag package rejects unknown flags. RegisterFlags must be cheap and side-effect free. It returns an opaque values struct passed back into ApplyFlags only after config and common flags select the provider.

Pattern for a provider with typed config fields:

type exampleFlagValues struct {
	Region *string
}

func (Provider) RegisterFlags(fs *flag.FlagSet, defaults cli.Config) any {
	return exampleFlagValues{
		Region: fs.String("example-region", defaults.Example.Region, "Example region"),
	}
}

func (Provider) ApplyFlags(cfg *cli.Config, fs *flag.FlagSet, values any) error {
	v, ok := values.(exampleFlagValues)
	if !ok {
		return nil
	}
	if cli.FlagWasSet(fs, "example-region") {
		cfg.Example.Region = *v.Region
	}
	return nil
}

Config does not have a generic provider config bag. New provider packages should either add typed config fields and use cli.FlagWasSet from the provider package, or expose a small provider-specific flag helper from internal/cli (as Blacksmith does) when the config type is not ready to export cleanly.

If a provider needs durable config, add typed config fields in Config and env overrides in config.go.

Never pass provider secrets as command-line arguments. Use environment variables, local SDK config, the broker, or a credential store outside repo config.

#Runtime

Backends receive a narrow runtime:

type Runtime struct {
	Stdout io.Writer
	Stderr io.Writer
	Clock  Clock
	HTTP   *http.Client
	Exec   CommandRunner
}

Use it instead of App, global clocks, or package-level command hooks.

Delegated CLI integrations must use Runtime.Exec:

result, err := rt.Exec.Run(ctx, cli.LocalCommandRequest{
	Name:   "provider-cli",
	Args:   args,
	Stdout: rt.Stdout,
	Stderr: rt.Stderr,
})

This gives tests a fake command runner and avoids package-level exec.CommandContext seams. Use Runtime.Clock for timing and Runtime.Stdout / Runtime.Stderr for streaming and warnings.

#Implementing an SSH lease backend

An SSH lease backend returns a complete LeaseTarget:

type LeaseTarget struct {
	Server      Server
	SSH         SSHTarget
	LeaseID     string
	Coordinator *CoordinatorClient
}

Acquire should:

1. validate direct-provider prerequisites;
2. mint or accept the lease id handled by the request path;
3. ensure or install the SSH key;
4. provision the machine or sandbox;
5. wait until an address exists;
6. populate SSHTarget;
7. wait for SSH readiness when the provider owns boot;
8. mark provider labels/tags as ready;
9. return LeaseTarget.

Resolve should accept canonical lease IDs, provider IDs, names, and slugs where the provider can support them. It should return the stored per-lease SSH key when available.

List returns normalized LeaseView values. Do not print from List; command rendering belongs to core.

Touch should update provider labels/tags with idle and state metadata when the provider supports it. Static providers can update only the in-memory view.

ReleaseLease should be idempotent where practical. Remove local claims after the provider release succeeds or is known to be unnecessary.

If cleanup is meaningful, implement CleanupBackend. Cleanup should honor DryRun, log skip/delete decisions to stderr, and use provider labels to avoid deleting unrelated machines.

#Implementing a delegated run backend

A delegated backend should preserve Crabbox ergonomics while letting the provider own the remote workflow.

Warmup should:

1. validate provider-specific workflow config;
2. create or warm the provider resource;
3. claim the resource locally with provider name and slug;
4. print the standard warmup summary;
5. write timing JSON when requested.

Run should:

1. reject unsupported Crabbox sync options;
2. acquire a resource or resolve an existing id/slug;
3. claim/reclaim the resource for the repo;
4. stream provider output through Runtime.Stdout and Runtime.Stderr;
5. return RunResult;
6. stop temporary resources when Keep is false.

List and Status should return normalized views. If the provider only offers a table or lossy native status shape, keep that parsing inside the backend.

Stop should stop the provider resource, remove local claims, and remove local per-resource keys if the backend created them.

Do not make delegated providers support crabbox ssh, vnc, webvnc, screenshot, code, or Actions runner hydration unless the provider exposes a stable connection contract that preserves Crabbox's security boundary.

#Rendering

Backends return values. Core renders output.

ListRequest and StatusRequest intentionally do not carry JSON flags. The command handler decides whether to render human output or JSON.

JSONListBackend is the only exception, for compatibility with older script-facing JSON schemas. It should not be used for new providers.

That rule keeps crabbox list --json, crabbox status --json, human tables, and future UI/plugin consumers consistent across backend kinds.

#External provider plugins

External process plugins are not implemented yet. Do not add a provider that depends on an undocumented stdio protocol.

The intended direction is:

• a built-in Go provider package discovers and configures the external process;
• the process speaks JSON over stdio;
• the Go side adapts it to SSHLeaseBackend or DelegatedRunBackend;
• core commands still render list/status and own SSH workflows where applicable.

Expected rough command shape:

provider-plugin capabilities
provider-plugin acquire
provider-plugin resolve
provider-plugin list
provider-plugin release
provider-plugin touch
provider-plugin run
provider-plugin status
provider-plugin stop

The external protocol should not bypass the backend interfaces. It is an implementation detail behind a normal registered provider.

#Tests

Add tests at the lowest level that proves the contract.

For provider registration:

• canonical name resolves through ProviderFor;
• aliases resolve where promised;
• Spec has the expected kind, targets, features, and coordinator mode;
• provider-specific flags apply only after selection.

For SSH lease backends:

• acquire success returns a LeaseTarget with host, user, port, key, lease id;
• acquire failure releases partial resources when possible;
• resolve supports lease id and supported aliases;
• list returns normalized views without printing;
• touch updates labels/tags and honors state/idle timeout;
• release removes claims and provider resources;
• cleanup honors dry-run.

For delegated run backends:

• sync-only/checksum/force-large options are rejected as the spec dictates;
• new run acquires, claims, streams, and stops when Keep=false;
• existing id/slug resolves and claims correctly;
• list/status parse provider output into normalized views;
• stop removes claims and local keys;
• all subprocess calls go through Runtime.Exec.

Use fake CommandRunner, fake clocks, fake HTTP clients, and provider test clients. Avoid live provider calls in unit tests.

Run at least:

go test -count=1 ./internal/cli ./internal/providers/...
go test -count=1 ./...
go vet ./...
scripts/check-docs.sh

For high-risk provider changes, also run:

go test -race -count=1 ./internal/cli
go build -trimpath -o bin/crabbox ./cmd/crabbox

Add live smoke only when credentials and cost boundaries are explicit.

#Review checklist

Before landing a new backend:

• The provider has a folder under internal/providers/<name>.
• The provider is imported by internal/providers/all.
• Name is canonical and docs use that name.
• Compatibility aliases are intentional and tested.
• ProviderSpec.Kind matches the real execution model.
• Family is set when the provider routes flags to a sibling.
• Targets and features describe implemented behavior only.
• Coordinator mode is CoordinatorNever unless the broker can provision it.
• Provider flags are registered before parse and applied only after selection.
• Secrets are not stored in repo config or passed in argv.
• list and status return normalized values instead of printing.
• Delegated providers reject unsupported sync options.
• SSH providers do not own core sync/run/rendering.
• Tests cover command dispatch and backend behavior without live credentials.
• Docs and the source map are updated.

#See also

• Authoring a provider: step-by-step guide.
• Providers overview: the full provider catalog.
• Concepts: how providers fit the lease/run model.